• peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite

  
  
  Figure 22.3 Origin of coal.
  
  
  
  
  Figure 22.4 Origin of coal deposits.
  
  
  
  
  Figure 22.5 Geographic distribution of recoverable coal reserves.
  
  
  
  
  Figure 22.6 Worldwide occurrence of coal measures.
  
  
  

• coal fields of the U.S.

  
  
  Figure 22.7 Coal deposits of the US.
  
  
  

Figure 22.8 World petroleum probability map.




Figure 22.9 Petrochemical industry - Los Angeles, CA.




Figure 22.10 Known world resources total 667 billion barrels (Saudi Arabian reserves may be understated by a large amount). To put these figures in perspective, the United States in 1973 consumed more than 17 million barrels each day, whereas it produced 11 million barrels. Moreover, world petroleum demand is presently rising at an annual rate of 7 percent, which means a doubling every 10 years. Oil and Gas Journal, 12 December 1972 (from The Changing Earth - Introduction to Geology (2nd ed.), by Mears, Jr., D. Van Nostrand Co., 1977).




Figure 22.11 Projected rates of petroleum consumption.

• geologic conditions for accumulation

  
  
  Figure 22.12 Accumulation of oil and gas. A) Anticline trap, B) Fault trap, C) Unconformity trap, and D) Stratigraphic trap.
  
  
  
  
  Figure 22.13 Schematic diagram of a salt dome (from Physical Geology (3rd ed.), by Leet & Judson, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1965).
  
  
  

  1. source bed (e.g., dark shale)

  2. reservoir bed (permeable rock)

     
     
     Figure 22.14 Where the world's oil (excluding Russian controlled areas) has been found. The analysis was based on 236 oil fields with ultimate yields exceeding 100 million barrels each (past production plus proved reserves) (from Physical Geology (3rd ed.), by Leet & Judson, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1965).
     
     
     

  3. cap rock (impermeable rock, e.g., salt, shale, lmst)

  4. structural trap

     
     
     Figure 22.15 Type of oil trap (from Physical Geology (3rd ed.), by Leet & Judson, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1965).
     
     
     
     
     Figure 22.16 Field location within a structural basin (from Physical Geology (3rd ed.), by Leet & Judson, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1965).
     
     
     

  5. thermal window (if temperatures exceed ca. 100°C, hydrocarbons are converted to viscous tar/asphalt deposits that cannot be extracted by drilling)

Figure 22.17 Trenton field in NW Ohio where J. D. Rockerfeller got his start.




Figure 22.18 Modern oil wells on a very old field (Bairoil, WY).




Figure 22.19 Active oilwell derrick on I-80 NE of Denver, CO.




Figure 22.20 Enclosed oilwell at Farmer's Market in Los Angeles, CA.

Figure 22.21 Distribution of oil shale in the Green River Formation of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming (from The Earth - An Introduction to Physical Geology (2nd ed.), by Tarbuck & Lutgens, Merrill Publishing Co., 1984).

• yields ca. 38 liters of oil/ton

• kerogen + heat (ca. 480°C) ==> hydrocarbons + carbonaceous residue

• cooling of hydrocarbons ==> shale oil